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Genetic engineering

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a non-technical introduction to the topic of genetics, see <a href="Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction to genetics</a>. For the song by Orchestral Manoeuvres in the Dark, see <a href="Genetic_Engineering_(song)" title="Genetic Engineering (song)">Genetic Engineering (song)</a>. For the Montreal hardcore band, see <a href="Genetic_Control" title="Genetic Control">Genetic Control</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.15em;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%;padding-top:0.2em;font-weight:normal;"></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;;background:none;font-size:40%;line-height:0.4em;">

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<a href="Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">Genetically modified organisms</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;">

<ul><li><a href="Genetically_modified_bacteria" title="Genetically modified bacteria">Bacteria</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetically_modified_virus" title="Genetically modified virus">Viruses</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Genetically_modified_animal" title="Genetically modified animal">Animals</a>

<ul><li><a href="Genetically_modified_mammal" title="Genetically modified mammal">Mammals</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetically_modified_insect" title="Genetically modified insect">Insects</a></li></ul></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Genetically_modified_plant" title="Genetically modified plant">Plants</a>

<ul><li><a href="Genetically_modified_maize" title="Genetically modified maize">Maize/corn</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetically_modified_soybean" title="Genetically modified soybean">Soybean</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetically_modified_potato" title="Genetically modified potato">Potato</a></li></ul></li></ul></td>

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History and regulation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_genetic_engineering" title="History of genetic engineering">History</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Regulation_of_genetic_engineering" title="Regulation of genetic engineering">Regulation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Substantial_equivalence" title="Substantial equivalence">Substantial equivalence</a></li>

<li><a href="Cartagena_Protocol_on_Biosafety" title="Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety">Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety</a></li></ul></li></ul></td>

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Process</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;">

<ul><li><a href="Genetic_engineering_techniques" title="Genetic engineering techniques">Techniques</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_cloning" title="Molecular cloning">Molecular cloning</a>

<ul><li><a href="Recombinant_DNA" title="Recombinant DNA">Recombinant DNA</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Gene_delivery" title="Gene delivery">Gene delivery</a>

<ul><li><a href="Transformation_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation (genetics)">Transformation</a></li>

<li><a href="Transfection" title="Transfection">Transfection</a></li>

<li><a href="Transduction_(genetics)" title="Transduction (genetics)">Transduction</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Genome_editing" title="Genome editing">Genome editing</a>

<ul><li><a href="TALEN" class="mw-redirect" title="TALEN">TALEN</a></li>

<li><a href="CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR</a></li></ul></li></ul></td>

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Applications</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;">

<ul><li><a href="Genetically_modified_crops" title="Genetically modified crops">Genetically modified crops</a>

<li><a href="Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">Gene therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Designer_baby" title="Designer baby">Designer baby</a></li></ul></td>

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Controversies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em;">

<ul><li><a href="Genetically_modified_food_controversies" title="Genetically modified food controversies">Genetically modified food controversies</a></li>

<li><a href="GMO_conspiracy_theories" title="GMO conspiracy theories">GMO conspiracy theories</a></li>

<li><a href="Pusztai_affair" title="Pusztai affair">Pusztai affair</a></li>

<li><a href="S%C3%A9ralini_affair" title="Séralini affair">Séralini affair</a></li>

<li><a href="StarLink_corn_recall" title="StarLink corn recall">StarLink corn recall</a></li>

<li><a href="He_Jiankui_affair" title="He Jiankui affair">He Jiankui affair</a></li></ul></td>

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Genetic engineering, also called genetic modification or genetic manipulation, is the modification and manipulation of an organism's <a href="Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> using <a href="Technology" title="Technology">technology</a>. It is a set of <a href="Genetic_engineering_techniques" title="Genetic engineering techniques">technologies</a> used to change the genetic makeup of cells, including the transfer of genes within and across species boundaries to produce improved or novel <a href="Organisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Organisms">organisms</a>. New <a href="DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> is obtained by either isolating and copying the genetic material of interest using <a href="Recombinant_DNA" title="Recombinant DNA">recombinant DNA</a> methods or by <a href="Artificial_gene_synthesis" title="Artificial gene synthesis">artificially synthesising</a> the DNA. A <a href="Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">construct</a> is usually created and used to insert this DNA into the host organism. The first recombinant DNA molecule was made by <a href="Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a> in 1972 by combining DNA from the monkey virus <a href="SV40" title="SV40">SV40</a> with the <a href="Lambda_phage" title="Lambda phage">lambda virus</a>. As well as inserting <a href="Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>, the process can be used to remove, or "<a href="Gene_knockout" title="Gene knockout">knock out</a>", genes. The new DNA can either be inserted randomly or <a href="Gene_targeting" title="Gene targeting">targeted</a> to a specific part of the <a href="Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a>

An organism that is generated through genetic engineering is considered to be genetically modified (GM) and the resulting entity is a <a href="Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">genetically modified organism</a> (GMO). The first GMO was a <a href="Genetically_modified_bacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetically modified bacterium">bacterium</a> generated by <a href="Herbert_Boyer" title="Herbert Boyer">Herbert Boyer</a> and <a href="Stanley_Norman_Cohen" title="Stanley Norman Cohen">Stanley Cohen</a> in 1973. <a href="Rudolf_Jaenisch" title="Rudolf Jaenisch">Rudolf Jaenisch</a> created the first GM animal when he inserted foreign DNA into a <a href="Genetically_modified_mouse" title="Genetically modified mouse">mouse</a> in 1974. The first company to focus on genetic engineering, <a href="Genentech" title="Genentech">Genentech</a>, was founded in 1976 and started the production of human proteins. Genetically engineered human <a href="Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a> was produced in 1978 and insulin-producing bacteria were commercialised in 1982. <a href="Genetically_modified_food" title="Genetically modified food">Genetically modified food</a> has been sold since 1994, with the release of the <a href="Flavr_Savr" title="Flavr Savr">Flavr Savr</a> tomato. The Flavr Savr was engineered to have a longer shelf life, but most current GM crops are modified to increase resistance to insects and herbicides. <a href="GloFish" title="GloFish">GloFish</a>, the first GMO designed as a pet, was sold in the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a> in December 2003. In 2016 <a href="AquAdvantage_salmon" title="AquAdvantage salmon">salmon</a> modified with a growth hormone were sold.

Genetic engineering has been applied in numerous fields including research, medicine, industrial biotechnology and agriculture. In research, GMOs are used to study gene function and expression through loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression experiments. By knocking out genes responsible for certain conditions it is possible to create <a href="Model_organism" title="Model organism">animal model organisms</a> of human diseases. As well as producing hormones, vaccines and other drugs, genetic engineering has the potential to cure genetic diseases through <a href="Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">gene therapy</a>. <a href="Chinese_hamster_ovary_cell" title="Chinese hamster ovary cell">Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells</a> are used in industrial genetic engineering. Additionally <a href="MRNA_vaccine" title="MRNA vaccine">mRNA vaccines</a> are made through genetic engineering to prevent infections by viruses such as <a href="COVID-19_vaccine" title="COVID-19 vaccine">COVID-19</a>. The same techniques that are used to produce drugs can also have industrial applications such as producing enzymes for laundry detergent, cheeses and other products.

The rise of commercialised <a href="Genetically_modified_crops" title="Genetically modified crops">genetically modified crops</a> has provided economic benefit to farmers in many different countries, but has also been the source of most of the <a href="Genetically_modified_food_controversies" title="Genetically modified food controversies">controversy</a> surrounding the technology. This has been present since its early use; the first field trials were destroyed by anti-GM activists. Although there is a <a href="Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">scientific consensus</a> that food derived from GMO crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food, critics consider GM food safety a leading concern. <a href="Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a>, impact on non-target organisms, control of the food supply and <a href="Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> rights have also been raised as potential issues. These concerns have led to the development of a regulatory framework, which started in 1975. It has led to an international treaty, the <a href="Cartagena_Protocol_on_Biosafety" title="Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety">Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety</a>, that was adopted in 2000. Individual countries have developed their own regulatory systems regarding GMOs, with the most marked differences occurring between the United States and <a href="Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>.

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<div class="quotebox-title" style=""><a href="International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a> definition</div>

Genetic engineering: Process of inserting new genetic information into existing cells in order to modify a specific organism for the purpose of changing its characteristics.

Note: Adapted from ref.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2></div>

Genetic engineering is a process that alters the genetic structure of an organism by either removing or introducing <a href="DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, or modifying existing genetic material in situ. Unlike traditional <a href="Animal_breeding" title="Animal breeding">animal</a> and <a href="Plant_breeding" title="Plant breeding">plant breeding</a>, which involves doing multiple crosses and then selecting for the organism with the desired <a href="Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a>, genetic engineering takes the <a href="Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> directly from one organism and delivers it to the other. This is much faster, can be used to insert any genes from any organism (even ones from different <a href="Domain_(biology)" title="Domain (biology)">domains</a>) and prevents other undesirable genes from also being added.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a>

Genetic engineering could potentially fix severe <a href="Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">genetic disorders</a> in humans by replacing the defective gene with a functioning one.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> It is an important tool in research that allows the function of specific genes to be studied.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Drugs, vaccines and other products have been harvested from organisms engineered to produce them.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <a href="List_of_genetically_modified_crops" title="List of genetically modified crops">Crops</a> have been developed that aid <a href="Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a> by increasing yield, nutritional value and tolerance to environmental stresses.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a>

The DNA can be introduced directly into the <a href="Host_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Host organism">host organism</a> or into a cell that is then <a href="Cell_fusion" title="Cell fusion">fused</a> or <a href="Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybridised</a> with the host.<a href="#cite_note-EU17-9">[9]</a> This relies on <a href="Recombinant_DNA" title="Recombinant DNA">recombinant nucleic acid</a> techniques to form new combinations of heritable genetic material followed by the incorporation of that material either indirectly through a <a href="Vector_(molecular_biology)" title="Vector (molecular biology)">vector</a> system or directly through <a href="Microinjection" title="Microinjection">micro-injection</a>, macro-injection or <a href="Micro-encapsulation" title="Micro-encapsulation">micro-encapsulation</a>.

Genetic engineering does not normally include traditional breeding, <a href="In_vitro_fertilisation" title="In vitro fertilisation">in vitro fertilisation</a>, induction of <a href="Polyploidy" title="Polyploidy">polyploidy</a>, <a href="Mutagenesis" title="Mutagenesis">mutagenesis</a> and cell fusion techniques that do not use recombinant <a href="Nucleic_acid" title="Nucleic acid">nucleic acids</a> or a <a href="Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">genetically modified organism</a> in the process.<a href="#cite_note-EU17-9">[9]</a> However, some broad definitions of genetic engineering include <a href="Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">selective breeding</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <a href="Cloning" title="Cloning">Cloning</a> and <a href="Stem_cell" title="Stem cell">stem cell</a> research, although not considered genetic engineering,<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> are closely related and genetic engineering can be used within them.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <a href="Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a> is an emerging discipline that takes genetic engineering a step further by introducing artificially synthesised material into an organism.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>

Plants, animals or microorganisms that have been changed through genetic engineering are termed <a href="Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">genetically modified organisms</a> or GMOs.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> If genetic material from another species is added to the host, the resulting organism is called <a href="Transgenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgenic">transgenic</a>. If genetic material from the same species or a species that can naturally breed with the host is used the resulting organism is called <a href="Cisgenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cisgenic">cisgenic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> If genetic engineering is used to remove genetic material from the target organism the resulting organism is termed a <a href="Gene_knockout" title="Gene knockout">knockout</a> organism.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> In Europe genetic modification is <a href="Synonymous" class="mw-redirect" title="Synonymous">synonymous</a> with genetic engineering while within the United States of America and Canada genetic modification can also be used to refer to more conventional breeding methods.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="History_of_genetic_engineering" title="History of genetic engineering">History of genetic engineering</a></div>

Humans have altered the genomes of species for thousands of years through <a href="Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">selective breeding</a>, or artificial selection<a href="#cite_note-Root-20">[20]</a>: 1 <a href="#cite_note-Zohary-21">[21]</a>: 1 as contrasted with <a href="Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. More recently, <a href="Mutation_breeding" title="Mutation breeding">mutation breeding</a> has used exposure to chemicals or radiation to produce a high frequency of random mutations, for selective breeding purposes. Genetic engineering as the direct manipulation of DNA by humans outside breeding and mutations has only existed since the 1970s. The term "genetic engineering" was coined by the Russian-born geneticist <a href="Nikolay_Timofeev-Ressovsky" title="Nikolay Timofeev-Ressovsky">Nikolay Timofeev-Ressovsky</a> in his 1934 paper "The Experimental Production of Mutations", published in the British journal Biological Reviews.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <a href="Jack_Williamson" title="Jack Williamson">Jack Williamson</a> used the term in his science fiction novel Dragon's Island, published in 1951<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> – one year before DNA's role in <a href="Heredity" title="Heredity">heredity</a> was confirmed by <a href="Alfred_Hershey" title="Alfred Hershey">Alfred Hershey</a> and <a href="Martha_Chase" title="Martha Chase">Martha Chase</a>,<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> and two years before <a href="James_D._Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="James D. Watson">James Watson</a> and <a href="Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> showed that the <a href="DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> molecule has a double-helix structure – though the general concept of direct genetic manipulation was explored in rudimentary form in <a href="Stanley_G._Weinbaum" title="Stanley G. Weinbaum">Stanley G. Weinbaum</a>'s 1936 science fiction story Proteus Island.<a href="#cite_note-SFE-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>

In 1972, <a href="Paul_Berg" title="Paul Berg">Paul Berg</a> created the first <a href="Recombinant_DNA" title="Recombinant DNA">recombinant DNA</a> molecules by combining DNA from the monkey virus <a href="SV40" title="SV40">SV40</a> with that of the <a href="Lambda_phage" title="Lambda phage">lambda virus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> In 1973 <a href="Herbert_Boyer" title="Herbert Boyer">Herbert Boyer</a> and <a href="Stanley_Norman_Cohen" title="Stanley Norman Cohen">Stanley Cohen</a> created the first <a href="Transgenic_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgenic organism">transgenic organism</a> by inserting <a href="Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance genes</a> into the <a href="Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmid</a> of an <a href="Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a> bacterium.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> A year later <a href="Rudolf_Jaenisch" title="Rudolf Jaenisch">Rudolf Jaenisch</a> created a <a href="Transgenic_mouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgenic mouse">transgenic mouse</a> by introducing foreign DNA into its embryo, making it the world's first <a href="Transgenic_animal" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgenic animal">transgenic animal</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid4364530-30">[30]</a> These achievements led to concerns in the scientific community about potential risks from genetic engineering, which were first discussed in depth at the <a href="Asilomar_Conference_on_Recombinant_DNA" title="Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA">Asilomar Conference</a> in 1975. One of the main recommendations from this meeting was that government oversight of recombinant DNA research should be established until the technology was deemed safe.<a href="#cite_note-BergBaltimoreBrennerRoblinSinger1975-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a>

In 1976 <a href="Genentech" title="Genentech">Genentech</a>, the first genetic engineering company, was founded by Herbert Boyer and <a href="Robert_A._Swanson" title="Robert A. Swanson">Robert Swanson</a> and a year later the company produced a human protein (<a href="Somatostatin" title="Somatostatin">somatostatin</a>) in E. coli. Genentech announced the production of genetically engineered human <a href="Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a> in 1978.<a href="#cite_note-GoeddelKleidBolivarHeynekerYansuraCreaHiroseKraszewskiItakuraRiggs1979-33">[33]</a> In 1980, the <a href="U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> in the <a href="Diamond_v._Chakrabarty" title="Diamond v. Chakrabarty">Diamond v. Chakrabarty</a> case ruled that genetically altered life could be patented.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> The <a href="Insulin_(medication)" title="Insulin (medication)">insulin</a> produced by bacteria was approved for release by the <a href="Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) in 1982.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a>

In 1983, a biotech company, Advanced Genetic Sciences (AGS) applied for U.S. government authorisation to perform field tests with the <a href="Ice-minus_bacteria" title="Ice-minus bacteria">ice-minus strain</a> of <a href="Pseudomonas_syringae" title="Pseudomonas syringae">Pseudomonas syringae</a> to protect crops from frost, but environmental groups and protestors delayed the field tests for four years with legal challenges.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> In 1987, the ice-minus strain of P. syringae became the first <a href="Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">genetically modified organism</a> (GMO) to be released into the environment<a href="#cite_note-BBC2002-37">[37]</a> when a strawberry field and a potato field in California were sprayed with it.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Both test fields were attacked by activist groups the night before the tests occurred: "The world's first trial site attracted the world's first field trasher".<a href="#cite_note-BBC2002-37">[37]</a>

The first field trials of <a href="Transgenic_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Transgenic plants">genetically engineered plants</a> occurred in France and the US in 1986, tobacco plants were engineered to be resistant to <a href="Herbicide" title="Herbicide">herbicides</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> The People's Republic of China was the first country to commercialise transgenic plants, introducing a virus-resistant tobacco in 1992.<a href="#cite_note-James1997-40">[40]</a> In 1994 <a href="Monsanto#Spin-offs_and_mergers" title="Monsanto">Calgene</a> attained approval to commercially release the first <a href="Genetically_modified_food" title="Genetically modified food">genetically modified food</a>, the <a href="Flavr_Savr" title="Flavr Savr">Flavr Savr</a>, a tomato engineered to have a longer shelf life.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> In 1994, the European Union approved tobacco engineered to be resistant to the herbicide <a href="Bromoxynil" title="Bromoxynil">bromoxynil</a>, making it the first genetically engineered crop commercialised in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> In 1995, <a href="Genetically_modified_potato#NewLeaf" title="Genetically modified potato">Bt potato</a> was approved safe by the <a href="United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a>, after having been approved by the FDA, making it the first pesticide producing crop to be approved in the US.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> In 2009 11 transgenic crops were grown commercially in 25 countries, the largest of which by area grown were the US, Brazil, Argentina, India, Canada, China, Paraguay and South Africa.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

In 2010, scientists at the <a href="J._Craig_Venter_Institute" title="J. Craig Venter Institute">J. Craig Venter Institute</a> created the first <a href="Synthetic_genome" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic genome">synthetic genome</a> and inserted it into an empty bacterial cell. The resulting bacterium, named <a href="Mycoplasma_laboratorium" title="Mycoplasma laboratorium">Mycoplasma laboratorium</a>, could <a href="Replicate_(biology)" title="Replicate (biology)">replicate</a> and produce proteins.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Four years later this was taken a step further when a bacterium was developed that replicated a <a href="Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmid</a> containing a unique <a href="Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pair</a>, creating the first organism engineered to use an expanded genetic alphabet.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> In 2012, <a href="Jennifer_Doudna" title="Jennifer Doudna">Jennifer Doudna</a> and <a href="Emmanuelle_Charpentier" title="Emmanuelle Charpentier">Emmanuelle Charpentier</a> collaborated to develop the <a href="CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR/Cas9</a> system,<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> a technique which can be used to easily and specifically alter the genome of almost any organism.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Process">Process</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Genetic_engineering_techniques" title="Genetic engineering techniques">Genetic engineering techniques</a></div>

Creating a GMO is a multi-step process. Genetic engineers must first choose what gene they wish to insert into the organism. This is driven by what the aim is for the resultant organism and is built on earlier research. <a href="Genetic_screen" title="Genetic screen">Genetic screens</a> can be carried out to determine potential genes and further tests then used to identify the best candidates. The development of <a href="DNA_microarray" title="DNA microarray">microarrays</a>, <a href="Transcriptomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcriptomics">transcriptomics</a> and <a href="Whole_genome_sequencing" title="Whole genome sequencing">genome sequencing</a> has made it much easier to find suitable genes.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Luck also plays its part; the <a href="Roundup_Ready" title="Roundup Ready">Roundup Ready</a> gene was discovered after scientists noticed a bacterium thriving in the presence of the herbicide.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gene_isolation_and_cloning">Gene isolation and cloning</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Molecular_cloning" title="Molecular cloning">Molecular cloning</a></div>

The next step is to isolate the candidate gene. The <a href="Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> containing the gene is opened and the DNA is purified.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> The gene is separated by using <a href="Restriction_enzymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Restriction enzymes">restriction enzymes</a> to cut the DNA into fragments<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> or <a href="Polymerase_chain_reaction" title="Polymerase chain reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a> (PCR) to amplify up the gene segment.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> These segments can then be extracted through <a href="Gel_electrophoresis" title="Gel electrophoresis">gel electrophoresis</a>. If the chosen gene or the donor organism's <a href="Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> has been well studied it may already be accessible from a <a href="Library_(biology)" title="Library (biology)">genetic library</a>. If the <a href="DNA_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA sequence">DNA sequence</a> is known, but no copies of the gene are available, it can also be <a href="Gene_synthesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene synthesis">artificially synthesised</a>.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> Once isolated the gene is <a href="Ligation_(molecular_biology)" title="Ligation (molecular biology)">ligated</a> into a <a href="Plasmid" title="Plasmid">plasmid</a> that is then inserted into a bacterium. The plasmid is replicated when the bacteria divide, ensuring unlimited copies of the gene are available.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The <a href="RK2_plasmid" title="RK2 plasmid">RK2 plasmid</a> is notable for its ability to replicate in a wide variety of <a href="Single-celled_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-celled organism">single-celled organisms</a>, which makes it suitable as a genetic engineering tool.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a>

Before the gene is inserted into the target organism it must be combined with other genetic elements. These include a <a href="Promoter_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Promoter (biology)">promoter</a> and <a href="Terminator_(genetics)" title="Terminator (genetics)">terminator</a> region, which initiate and end <a href="Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcription</a>. A <a href="Selectable_marker" title="Selectable marker">selectable marker</a> gene is added, which in most cases confers <a href="Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance</a>, so researchers can easily determine which cells have been successfully transformed. The gene can also be modified at this stage for better expression or effectiveness. These manipulations are carried out using <a href="Recombinant_DNA" title="Recombinant DNA">recombinant DNA</a> techniques, such as <a href="Restriction_digest" title="Restriction digest">restriction digests</a>, ligations and molecular cloning.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inserting_DNA_into_the_host_genome">Inserting DNA into the host genome</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Gene_delivery" title="Gene delivery">Gene delivery</a></div>

There are a number of techniques used to insert genetic material into the host genome. Some bacteria can naturally <a href="Competence_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Competence (biology)">take up foreign DNA</a>. This ability can be induced in other bacteria via stress (e.g. <a href="Heat_shock" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat shock">thermal</a> or electric shock), which increases the cell membrane's permeability to DNA; up-taken DNA can either integrate with the genome or exist as <a href="Extrachromosomal_DNA" title="Extrachromosomal DNA">extrachromosomal DNA</a>. DNA is generally inserted into animal cells using <a href="Microinjection" title="Microinjection">microinjection</a>, where it can be injected through the cell's <a href="Nuclear_envelope" title="Nuclear envelope">nuclear envelope</a> directly into the <a href="Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a>, or through the use of <a href="Viral_vectors" class="mw-redirect" title="Viral vectors">viral vectors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a>

Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of <a href="Agrobacterium" title="Agrobacterium">Agrobacterium</a> for the delivery of sequences hosted in <a href="Transfer_DNA_binary_system" title="Transfer DNA binary system">T-DNA binary vectors</a>. In plants the DNA is often inserted using <a href="Agrobacterium#Uses_in_biotechnology" title="Agrobacterium">Agrobacterium-mediated transformation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-NRCCIAUEGEF-62">[62]</a> taking advantage of the Agrobacteriums <a href="Transfer_DNA" title="Transfer DNA">T-DNA</a> sequence that allows natural insertion of genetic material into plant cells.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Other methods include <a href="Biolistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Biolistics">biolistics</a>, where particles of gold or tungsten are coated with DNA and then shot into young plant cells,<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> and <a href="Electroporation" title="Electroporation">electroporation</a>, which involves using an electric shock to make the cell membrane permeable to plasmid DNA.

As only a single cell is transformed with genetic material, the organism must be <a href="Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">regenerated</a> from that single cell. In plants this is accomplished through the use of <a href="Plant_tissue_culture" title="Plant tissue culture">tissue culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> In animals it is necessary to ensure that the inserted DNA is present in the <a href="Embryonic_stem_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryonic stem cells">embryonic stem cells</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NRCCIAUEGEF-62">[62]</a> Bacteria consist of a single cell and reproduce clonally so regeneration is not necessary. <a href="Selectable_markers" class="mw-redirect" title="Selectable markers">Selectable markers</a> are used to easily differentiate transformed from untransformed cells. These markers are usually present in the transgenic organism, although a number of strategies have been developed that can remove the selectable marker from the mature transgenic plant.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a>

Further testing using PCR, <a href="Southern_hybridization" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern hybridization">Southern hybridization</a>, and <a href="DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a> is conducted to confirm that an organism contains the new gene.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> These tests can also confirm the chromosomal location and copy number of the inserted gene. The presence of the gene does not guarantee it will be <a href="Gene_expression" title="Gene expression">expressed</a> at appropriate levels in the target tissue so methods that look for and measure the gene products (RNA and protein) are also used. These include <a href="Northern_hybridization" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern hybridization">northern hybridisation</a>, quantitative <a href="RT-PCR" class="mw-redirect" title="RT-PCR">RT-PCR</a>, <a href="Western_blot" title="Western blot">Western blot</a>, <a href="Immunofluorescence" title="Immunofluorescence">immunofluorescence</a>, <a href="ELISA" title="ELISA">ELISA</a> and phenotypic analysis.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a>

The new genetic material can be inserted randomly within the host genome or targeted to a specific location. The technique of <a href="Gene_targeting" title="Gene targeting">gene targeting</a> uses <a href="Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombination</a> to make desired changes to a specific <a href="Endogenous" class="mw-redirect" title="Endogenous">endogenous</a> gene. This tends to occur at a relatively low frequency in plants and animals and generally requires the use of <a href="Selectable_markers" class="mw-redirect" title="Selectable markers">selectable markers</a>. The frequency of gene targeting can be greatly enhanced through <a href="Genome_editing" title="Genome editing">genome editing</a>. Genome editing uses artificially engineered <a href="Nuclease" title="Nuclease">nucleases</a> that create specific <a href="Double-strand_breaks" class="mw-redirect" title="Double-strand breaks">double-stranded breaks</a> at desired locations in the genome, and use the cell's endogenous mechanisms to repair the induced break by the natural processes of <a href="Homologous_recombination" title="Homologous recombination">homologous recombination</a> and <a href="Nonhomologous_end_joining" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonhomologous end joining">nonhomologous end-joining</a>. There are four families of engineered nucleases: <a href="Meganuclease" title="Meganuclease">meganucleases</a>,<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <a href="Zinc_finger_nuclease" class="mw-redirect" title="Zinc finger nuclease">zinc finger nucleases</a>,<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <a href="Transcription_activator-like_effector_nuclease" title="Transcription activator-like effector nuclease">transcription activator-like effector nucleases</a> (TALENs),<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> and the Cas9-guideRNA system (adapted from <a href="CRISPR_gene_editing" title="CRISPR gene editing">CRISPR</a>).<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> TALEN and CRISPR are the two most commonly used and each has its own advantages.<a href="#cite_note-MalzahnLowderQi2017-78">[78]</a> TALENs have greater target specificity, while CRISPR is easier to design and more efficient.<a href="#cite_note-MalzahnLowderQi2017-78">[78]</a> In addition to enhancing gene targeting, engineered nucleases can be used to introduce mutations at endogenous genes that generate a <a href="Gene_knockout" title="Gene knockout">gene knockout</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2></div>

Genetic engineering has applications in medicine, research, industry and agriculture and can be used on a wide range of plants, animals and microorganisms. <a href="Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a>, the first organisms to be genetically modified, can have plasmid DNA inserted containing new genes that code for medicines or enzymes that process food and other <a href="Enzyme_substrate_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzyme substrate (biology)">substrates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Plants have been modified for insect protection, <a href="Herbicide_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbicide resistance">herbicide resistance</a>, virus resistance, enhanced nutrition, tolerance to environmental pressures and the production of <a href="Edible_vaccines" class="mw-redirect" title="Edible vaccines">edible vaccines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> Most commercialised GMOs are insect resistant or herbicide tolerant crop plants.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Genetically modified animals have been used for research, model animals and the production of agricultural or pharmaceutical products. The genetically modified animals include animals with <a href="Knock-out_mice" class="mw-redirect" title="Knock-out mice">genes knocked out</a>, <a href="Oncomouse" title="Oncomouse">increased susceptibility to disease</a>, hormones for extra growth and the ability to express proteins in their milk.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3></div>

Genetic engineering has many applications to medicine that include the manufacturing of drugs, creation of <a href="Model_organism" title="Model organism">model animals</a> that mimic human conditions and <a href="Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">gene therapy</a>. One of the earliest uses of genetic engineering was to mass-produce human insulin in bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-GoeddelKleidBolivarHeynekerYansuraCreaHiroseKraszewskiItakuraRiggs1979-33">[33]</a> This application has now been applied to human <a href="Growth_hormone" title="Growth hormone">growth hormones</a>, <a href="Follicle-stimulating_hormone" title="Follicle-stimulating hormone">follicle stimulating hormones</a> (for treating infertility), <a href="Albumin_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Albumin human">human albumin</a>, <a href="Monoclonal_antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoclonal antibodies">monoclonal antibodies</a>, <a href="Antihemophilic_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihemophilic factor">antihemophilic factors</a>, <a href="Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccines</a> and many other drugs.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Mouse <a href="Hybridoma_technology" title="Hybridoma technology">hybridomas</a>, cells fused together to create <a href="Monoclonal_antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoclonal antibodies">monoclonal antibodies</a>, have been adapted through genetic engineering to create human monoclonal antibodies.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <a href="Genetically_engineered_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetically engineered virus">Genetically engineered viruses</a> are being developed that can still confer immunity, but lack the <a href="Infectious_Disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious Disease">infectious</a> <a href="DNA_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA sequence">sequences</a>.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a>

Genetic engineering is also used to create animal models of human diseases. <a href="Genetically_modified_mouse" title="Genetically modified mouse">Genetically modified mice</a> are the most common genetically engineered animal model.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> They have been used to study and model cancer (the <a href="Oncomouse" title="Oncomouse">oncomouse</a>), obesity, heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, substance abuse, anxiety, aging and Parkinson disease.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Potential cures can be tested against these mouse models.

Gene therapy is the <a href="Human_genetic_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Human genetic engineering">genetic engineering of humans</a>, generally by replacing defective genes with effective ones. <a href="Clinical_research" title="Clinical research">Clinical research</a> using <a href="Somatic_(biology)" title="Somatic (biology)">somatic</a> gene therapy has been conducted with several diseases, including <a href="X-linked_severe_combined_immunodeficiency" title="X-linked severe combined immunodeficiency">X-linked SCID</a>,<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <a href="Chronic_lymphocytic_leukemia" title="Chronic lymphocytic leukemia">chronic lymphocytic leukemia</a> (CLL),<a href="#cite_note-Porter-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> and <a href="Parkinson's_disease" title="Parkinson's disease">Parkinson's disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> In 2012, <a href="Alipogene_tiparvovec" title="Alipogene tiparvovec">Alipogene tiparvovec</a> became the first gene therapy treatment to be approved for clinical use.<a href="#cite_note-Gallagher-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-Richards2012-97">[97]</a> In 2015 a virus was used to insert a healthy gene into the skin cells of a boy suffering from a rare skin disease, <a href="Epidermolysis_bullosa" title="Epidermolysis bullosa">epidermolysis bullosa</a>, in order to grow, and then graft healthy skin onto 80 percent of the boy's body which was affected by the illness.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a>

<a href="Germline" title="Germline">Germline</a> gene therapy would result in any change being inheritable, which has raised concerns within the scientific community.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> In 2015, CRISPR was used to edit the DNA of non-viable <a href="Human_embryos" class="mw-redirect" title="Human embryos">human embryos</a>,<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20150423-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-PC-20150418-102">[102]</a> leading scientists of major world academies to call for a moratorium on inheritable human genome edits.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20151203-nw-103">[103]</a> There are also concerns that the technology could be used not just for treatment, but for enhancement, modification or alteration of a human beings' appearance, adaptability, intelligence, character or behavior.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> The distinction between cure and enhancement can also be difficult to establish.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> In November 2018, <a href="He_Jiankui" title="He Jiankui">He Jiankui</a> announced that he had <a href="Genome_editing" title="Genome editing">edited the genomes</a> of two human embryos, to attempt to disable the <a href="CCR5" title="CCR5">CCR5</a> gene, which codes for a receptor that <a href="HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> uses to enter cells. The work was widely condemned as unethical, dangerous, and premature.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Currently, germline modification is banned in 40 countries. Scientists that do this type of research will often let embryos grow for a few days without allowing it to develop into a baby.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a>

Researchers are altering the genome of pigs to induce the growth of human organs, with the aim of increasing the success of <a href="Xenotransplantation" title="Xenotransplantation">pig to human organ transplantation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Medical_News_Today-108">[108]</a> Scientists are creating "gene drives", changing the genomes of mosquitoes to make them immune to malaria, and then looking to spread the genetically altered mosquitoes throughout the mosquito population in the hopes of eliminating the disease.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research">Research</h3></div>

Genetic engineering is an important tool for <a href="Natural_scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural scientists">natural scientists</a>, with the creation of transgenic organisms one of the most important tools for analysis of gene function.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Genes and other genetic information from a wide range of organisms can be inserted into bacteria for storage and modification, creating <a href="Genetically_modified_bacteria" title="Genetically modified bacteria">genetically modified bacteria</a> in the process. Bacteria are cheap, easy to grow, <a href="Clone_(cell_biology)" title="Clone (cell biology)">clonal</a>, multiply quickly, relatively easy to transform and can be stored at -80 °C almost indefinitely. Once a gene is isolated it can be stored inside the bacteria providing an unlimited supply for research.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a>

Organisms are genetically engineered to discover the functions of certain genes. This could be the effect on the phenotype of the organism, where the gene is expressed or what other genes it interacts with. These experiments generally involve loss of function, gain of function, tracking and expression.

<ul><li>Loss of function experiments, such as in a <a href="Gene_knockout" title="Gene knockout">gene knockout</a> experiment, in which an organism is engineered to lack the activity of one or more genes. In a simple knockout a copy of the desired gene has been altered to make it non-functional. <a href="Embryonic_stem_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryonic stem cells">Embryonic stem cells</a> incorporate the altered gene, which replaces the already present functional copy. These stem cells are injected into <a href="Blastocyst" title="Blastocyst">blastocysts</a>, which are implanted into surrogate mothers. This allows the experimenter to analyse the defects caused by this <a href="Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a> and thereby determine the role of particular genes. It is used especially frequently in <a href="Developmental_biology" title="Developmental biology">developmental biology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AlbertsJohnsonLewisRaffRobertsWalter2002-112">[112]</a> When this is done by creating a library of genes with point mutations at every position in the area of interest, or even every position in the whole gene, this is called "scanning mutagenesis". The simplest method, and the first to be used, is "alanine scanning", where every position in turn is mutated to the unreactive amino acid <a href="Alanine" title="Alanine">alanine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></li>

<li>Gain of function experiments, the logical counterpart of knockouts. These are sometimes performed in conjunction with knockout experiments to more finely establish the function of the desired gene. The process is much the same as that in knockout engineering, except that the construct is designed to increase the function of the gene, usually by providing extra copies of the gene or inducing synthesis of the protein more frequently. Gain of function is used to tell whether or not a protein is sufficient for a function, but does not always mean it is required, especially when dealing with genetic or functional redundancy.<a href="#cite_note-AlbertsJohnsonLewisRaffRobertsWalter2002-112">[112]</a></li>

<li>Tracking experiments, which seek to gain information about the localisation and interaction of the desired protein. One way to do this is to replace the wild-type gene with a 'fusion' gene, which is a juxtaposition of the wild-type gene with a reporting element such as <a href="Green_fluorescent_protein" title="Green fluorescent protein">green fluorescent protein</a> (GFP) that will allow easy visualisation of the products of the genetic modification. While this is a useful technique, the manipulation can destroy the function of the gene, creating secondary effects and possibly calling into question the results of the experiment. More sophisticated techniques are now in development that can track protein products without mitigating their function, such as the addition of small sequences that will serve as binding motifs to monoclonal antibodies.<a href="#cite_note-AlbertsJohnsonLewisRaffRobertsWalter2002-112">[112]</a></li>

<li>Expression studies aim to discover where and when specific proteins are produced. In these experiments, the DNA sequence before the DNA that codes for a protein, known as a gene's <a href="Promoter_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Promoter (biology)">promoter</a>, is reintroduced into an organism with the protein coding region replaced by a reporter gene such as GFP or an enzyme that catalyses the production of a dye. Thus the time and place where a particular protein is produced can be observed. Expression studies can be taken a step further by altering the promoter to find which pieces are crucial for the proper expression of the gene and are actually bound by transcription factor proteins; this process is known as <a href="Promoter_bashing" title="Promoter bashing">promoter bashing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial">Industrial</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Industrial_microbiology" title="Industrial microbiology">Industrial microbiology</a></div>Organisms can have their cells transformed with a gene coding for a useful protein, such as an enzyme, so that they will <a href="Protein_expression_(biotechnology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein expression (biotechnology)">overexpress</a> the desired protein. Mass quantities of the protein can then be manufactured by growing the transformed organism in <a href="Bioreactor" title="Bioreactor">bioreactor</a> equipment using <a href="Industrial_fermentation" title="Industrial fermentation">industrial fermentation</a>, and then <a href="Protein_purification" title="Protein purification">purifying</a> the protein.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Some genes do not work well in bacteria, so yeast, insect cells or mammalian cells can also be used.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> These techniques are used to produce medicines such as <a href="Insulin" title="Insulin">insulin</a>, <a href="Human_growth_hormone" class="mw-redirect" title="Human growth hormone">human growth hormone</a>, and <a href="Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccines</a>, supplements such as <a href="Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">tryptophan</a>, aid in the production of food (<a href="Chymosin" title="Chymosin">chymosin</a> in cheese making) and fuels.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Other applications with genetically engineered bacteria could involve making them perform tasks outside their natural cycle, such as making <a href="Biofuel" title="Biofuel">biofuels</a>,<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> cleaning up oil spills, carbon and other toxic waste<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> and detecting arsenic in drinking water.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Certain genetically modified microbes can also be used in <a href="Biomining" title="Biomining">biomining</a> and <a href="Bioremediation" title="Bioremediation">bioremediation</a>, due to their ability to extract heavy metals from their environment and incorporate them into compounds that are more easily recoverable.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a>

In <a href="Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>, a genetically modified virus has been used in a research laboratory as a scaffold for assembling a more environmentally friendly <a href="Lithium-ion_battery" title="Lithium-ion battery">lithium-ion battery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Bacteria have also been engineered to function as sensors by expressing a fluorescent protein under certain environmental conditions.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Genetically_modified_crops" title="Genetically modified crops">Genetically modified crops</a> and <a href="Genetically_modified_food" title="Genetically modified food">Genetically modified food</a></div>

One of the best-known and <a href="Genetically_modified_food_controversies" title="Genetically modified food controversies">controversial</a> applications of genetic engineering is the creation and use of <a href="Genetically_modified_crops" title="Genetically modified crops">genetically modified crops</a> or <a href="Genetically_modified_livestock" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetically modified livestock">genetically modified livestock</a> to produce <a href="Genetically_modified_food" title="Genetically modified food">genetically modified food</a>. Crops have been developed to increase production, increase tolerance to <a href="Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">abiotic stresses</a>, alter the composition of the food, or to produce novel products.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a>

The first crops to be released commercially on a large scale provided protection from insect pests or tolerance to <a href="Herbicides" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbicides">herbicides</a>. Fungal and virus resistant crops have also been developed or are in development.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> This makes the insect and weed management of crops easier and can indirectly increase crop yield.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-Biodiversity-130">[130]</a> GM crops that directly improve yield by accelerating growth or making the plant more hardy (by improving salt, cold or drought tolerance) are also under development.<a href="#cite_note-Deborah_B._Whitman_2000-131">[131]</a> In 2016 <a href="AquAdvantage_salmon" title="AquAdvantage salmon">Salmon</a> have been genetically modified with growth hormones to reach normal adult size much faster.<a href="#cite_note-Genetically_Engineered_Salmon-132">[132]</a>

GMOs have been developed that modify the quality of produce by increasing the nutritional value or providing more industrially useful qualities or quantities.<a href="#cite_note-Deborah_B._Whitman_2000-131">[131]</a> The <a href="Amflora" title="Amflora">Amflora</a> potato produces a more industrially useful blend of starches. <a href="Genetically_modified_soybean" title="Genetically modified soybean">Soybeans</a> and <a href="Genetically_modified_canola" title="Genetically modified canola">canola</a> have been genetically modified to produce more healthy oils.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> The first commercialised GM food was a <a href="Flavr_Savr" title="Flavr Savr">tomato</a> that had delayed ripening, increasing its <a href="Shelf_life" title="Shelf life">shelf life</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a>

Plants and animals have been engineered to produce materials they do not normally make. <a href="Pharming_(genetics)" title="Pharming (genetics)">Pharming</a> uses crops and animals as bioreactors to produce vaccines, drug intermediates, or the drugs themselves; the useful product is purified from the harvest and then used in the standard pharmaceutical production process.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> Cows and goats have been engineered to express drugs and other proteins in their milk, and in 2009 the FDA approved a drug produced in goat milk.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_applications">Other applications</h3></div>

Genetic engineering has potential applications in conservation and natural area management. Gene transfer through <a href="Viral_vector" title="Viral vector">viral vectors</a> has been proposed as a means of controlling invasive species as well as vaccinating threatened fauna from disease.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Transgenic trees have been suggested as a way to confer resistance to pathogens in wild populations.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> With the increasing risks of <a href="Maladaptation" title="Maladaptation">maladaptation</a> in organisms as a result of <a href="Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a> and other perturbations, facilitated adaptation through gene tweaking could be one solution to reducing extinction risks.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> Applications of genetic engineering in conservation are thus far mostly theoretical and have yet to be put into practice.

Genetic engineering is also being used to create <a href="Microbial_art" title="Microbial art">microbial art</a>.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Some bacteria have been genetically engineered to create black and white photographs.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Novelty items such as lavender-colored <a href="Dianthus_caryophyllus#Colors" title="Dianthus caryophyllus">carnations</a>,<a href="#cite_note-physorg-144">[144]</a> <a href="Blue_rose" title="Blue rose">blue roses</a>,<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> and <a href="GloFish" title="GloFish">glowing fish</a>,<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> have also been produced through genetic engineering.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Regulation">Regulation</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Regulation_of_genetic_engineering" title="Regulation of genetic engineering">Regulation of genetic engineering</a></div>

The regulation of genetic engineering concerns the approaches taken by governments to assess and manage the risks associated with the development and release of GMOs. The development of a regulatory framework began in 1975, at <a href="Asilomar_Conference_Grounds" title="Asilomar Conference Grounds">Asilomar</a>, California.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> The <a href="Asilomar_conference_on_recombinant_DNA" class="mw-redirect" title="Asilomar conference on recombinant DNA">Asilomar meeting</a> recommended a set of voluntary guidelines regarding the use of recombinant technology.<a href="#cite_note-BergBaltimoreBrennerRoblinSinger1975-31">[31]</a> As the technology improved the US established a committee at the <a href="Office_of_Science_and_Technology_Policy" title="Office of Science and Technology Policy">Office of Science and Technology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-McHughen2007-149">[149]</a> which assigned regulatory approval of GM food to the USDA, FDA and EPA.<a href="#cite_note-CoordinatedFrameworkForRegulationOfBiotechnology1986-150">[150]</a> The <a href="Cartagena_Protocol_on_Biosafety" title="Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety">Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety</a>, an international treaty that governs the transfer, handling, and use of GMOs,<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> was adopted on 29 January 2000.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> One hundred and fifty-seven countries are members of the Protocol, and many use it as a reference point for their own regulations.<a href="#cite_note-Kimani-153">[153]</a>

The legal and regulatory status of GM foods varies by country, with some nations banning or restricting them, and others permitting them with widely differing degrees of regulation.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Some countries allow the import of GM food with authorisation, but either do not allow its cultivation (Russia, Norway, Israel) or have provisions for cultivation even though no GM products are yet produced (Japan, South Korea). Most countries that do not allow GMO cultivation do permit research.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> Some of the most marked differences occur between the US and Europe. The US policy focuses on the product (not the process), only looks at verifiable scientific risks and uses the concept of <a href="Substantial_equivalence" title="Substantial equivalence">substantial equivalence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Marsen-159">[159]</a> The <a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> by contrast has possibly the most stringent GMO regulations in the world.<a href="#cite_note-Davison2010-160">[160]</a> All GMOs, along with <a href="Irradiated_food" class="mw-redirect" title="Irradiated food">irradiated food</a>, are considered "new food" and subject to extensive, case-by-case, science-based food evaluation by the <a href="European_Food_Safety_Authority" title="European Food Safety Authority">European Food Safety Authority</a>. The criteria for authorisation fall in four broad categories: "safety", "freedom of choice", "labelling", and "traceability".<a href="#cite_note-european_regulatory_system_genetic_engineering-161">[161]</a> The level of regulation in other countries that cultivate GMOs lie in between Europe and the United States.

<caption>Regulatory agencies by geographical region

</caption>

<th>Region

</th>

<th>Regulators

</th>

<th>Notes

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>US

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Europe

</td>

<td><a href="European_Food_Safety_Authority" title="European Food Safety Authority">European Food Safety Authority</a><a href="#cite_note-european_regulatory_system_genetic_engineering-161">[161]</a>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Canada

</td>

<td><a href="Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a> and the <a href="Canadian_Food_Inspection_Agency" title="Canadian Food Inspection Agency">Canadian Food Inspection Agency</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a>

</td>

<td>Regulated products with novel features regardless of method of origin<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Africa

</td>

<td><a href="Common_Market_for_Eastern_and_Southern_Africa" title="Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa">Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa</a><a href="#cite_note-Nature2010-166">[166]</a>

</td>

<td>Final decision lies with each individual country.<a href="#cite_note-Nature2010-166">[166]</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>China

</td>

<td>Office of Agricultural Genetic Engineering Biosafety Administration<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>India

</td>

<td>Institutional Biosafety Committee, Review Committee on Genetic Manipulation and Genetic Engineering Approval Committee<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Argentina

</td>

<td>National Agricultural Biotechnology Advisory Committee (environmental impact), the National Service of Health and Agrifood Quality (food safety) and the National Agribusiness Direction (effect on trade)<a href="#cite_note-BASFppt-169">[169]</a>

</td>

<td>Final decision made by the Secretariat of Agriculture, Livestock, Fishery and Food.<a href="#cite_note-BASFppt-169">[169]</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Brazil

</td>

<td>National Biosafety Technical Commission (environmental and food safety) and the Council of Ministers (commercial and economical issues)<a href="#cite_note-BASFppt-169">[169]</a>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>Australia

</td>

<td><a href="Office_of_the_Gene_Technology_Regulator" title="Office of the Gene Technology Regulator">Office of the Gene Technology Regulator</a> (oversees all GM products), <a href="Therapeutic_Goods_Administration" title="Therapeutic Goods Administration">Therapeutic Goods Administration</a> (GM medicines) and <a href="Food_Standards_Australia_New_Zealand" title="Food Standards Australia New Zealand">Food Standards Australia New Zealand</a> (GM food).<a href="#cite_note-VIC_ag-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-OTRWebsite-171">[171]</a>

</td>

<td>The individual state governments can then assess the impact of release on markets and trade and apply further legislation to control approved genetically modified products.<a href="#cite_note-OTRWebsite-171">[171]</a>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

One of the key issues concerning regulators is whether GM products should be labeled. The <a href="European_Commission" title="European Commission">European Commission</a> says that mandatory labeling and traceability are needed to allow for informed choice, avoid potential <a href="False_advertising" title="False advertising">false advertising</a><a href="#cite_note-EC1-172">[172]</a> and facilitate the withdrawal of products if adverse effects on health or the environment are discovered.<a href="#cite_note-EC2-173">[173]</a> The <a href="American_Medical_Association" title="American Medical Association">American Medical Association</a><a href="#cite_note-AMA-174">[174]</a> and the <a href="American_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science" title="American Association for the Advancement of Science">American Association for the Advancement of Science</a><a href="#cite_note-AAAS-175">[175]</a> say that absent scientific evidence of harm even voluntary labeling is <a href="Fear%2C_uncertainty_and_doubt" class="mw-redirect" title="Fear, uncertainty and doubt">misleading</a> and will falsely alarm consumers. Labeling of GMO products in the marketplace is required in 64 countries.<a href="#cite_note-Burlington-2014-176">[176]</a> Labeling can be mandatory up to a threshold GM content level (which varies between countries) or voluntary. In Canada and the US labeling of GM food is voluntary,<a href="#cite_note-RegGMFood-177">[177]</a> while in Europe all food (including <a href="Processed_food" class="mw-redirect" title="Processed food">processed food</a>) or <a href="Compound_feed" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound feed">feed</a> which contains greater than 0.9% of approved GMOs must be labelled.<a href="#cite_note-Davison2010-160">[160]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversy">Controversy</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Genetically_modified_food_controversies" title="Genetically modified food controversies">Genetically modified food controversies</a></div>

Critics have objected to the use of genetic engineering on several grounds, including ethical, ecological and economic concerns. Many of these concerns involve GM crops and whether food produced from them is safe and what impact growing them will have on the environment. These controversies have led to litigation, international trade disputes, and protests, and to restrictive regulation of commercial products in some countries.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a>

Accusations that scientists are "<a href="Playing_God_(ethics)" title="Playing God (ethics)">playing God</a>" and other <a href="Religious_views_on_genetically_modified_foods" title="Religious views on genetically modified foods">religious issues</a> have been ascribed to the technology from the beginning.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> Other ethical issues raised include the <a href="Biological_patent" title="Biological patent">patenting of life</a>,<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> the use of <a href="Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> rights,<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> the level of labeling on products,<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> control of the food supply<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> and the objectivity of the regulatory process.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> Although doubts have been raised,<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> economically most studies have found growing GM crops to be beneficial to farmers.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a>

<a href="Gene_flow" title="Gene flow">Gene flow</a> between GM crops and compatible plants, along with increased use of selective <a href="Herbicide" title="Herbicide">herbicides</a>, can increase the risk of "<a href="Superweeds" class="mw-redirect" title="Superweeds">superweeds</a>" developing.<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> Other environmental concerns involve potential impacts on non-target organisms, including <a href="Soil_microbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil microbes">soil microbes</a>,<a href="#cite_note-x9602e07-191">[191]</a> and an increase in secondary and resistant insect pests.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> Many of the environmental impacts regarding GM crops may take many years to be understood and are also evident in conventional agriculture practices.<a href="#cite_note-x9602e07-191">[191]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> With the commercialisation of <a href="Genetically_modified_fish" title="Genetically modified fish">genetically modified fish</a> there are concerns over what the environmental consequences will be if they escape.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a>

There are three main concerns over the safety of genetically modified food: whether they may provoke an <a href="Allergic_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Allergic reaction">allergic reaction</a>; whether the genes could transfer from the food into human cells; and whether the genes not approved for human consumption could <a href="Outcrossing" title="Outcrossing">outcross</a> to other crops.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> There is a <a href="Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">scientific consensus</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> that currently available food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food,<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> but that each GM food needs to be tested on a case-by-case basis before introduction.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> Nonetheless, members of the public are less likely than scientists to perceive GM foods as safe.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Genetics_in_fiction#Genetic_engineering" title="Genetics in fiction">Genetics in fiction § Genetic engineering</a></div>

Genetic engineering features in many <a href="Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> stories.<a href="#cite_note-SFE-25">[25]</a> <a href="Frank_Herbert" title="Frank Herbert">Frank Herbert</a>'s novel <a href="The_White_Plague" title="The White Plague">The White Plague</a> describes the deliberate use of genetic engineering to create a <a href="Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a> which specifically kills women.<a href="#cite_note-SFE-25">[25]</a> Another of Herbert's creations, the <a href="Dune_(franchise)" title="Dune (franchise)">Dune</a> series of novels, uses genetic engineering to create the powerful <a href="Tleilaxu" class="mw-redirect" title="Tleilaxu">Tleilaxu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> Few films have informed audiences about genetic engineering, with the exception of the 1978 <a href="The_Boys_from_Brazil_(film)" title="The Boys from Brazil (film)">The Boys from Brazil</a> and the 1993 <a href="Jurassic_Park_(film)" title="Jurassic Park (film)">Jurassic Park</a>, both of which make use of a lesson, a demonstration, and a clip of scientific film.<a href="#cite_note-Moraga2-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wellcome-215">[215]</a> Genetic engineering methods are weakly represented in film; Michael Clark, writing for the <a href="Wellcome_Trust" title="Wellcome Trust">Wellcome Trust</a>, calls the portrayal of genetic engineering and biotechnology "seriously distorted"<a href="#cite_note-Wellcome-215">[215]</a> in films such as <a href="The_6th_Day" title="The 6th Day">The 6th Day</a>. In Clark's view, the biotechnology is typically "given fantastic but visually arresting forms" while the science is either relegated to the background or fictionalised to suit a young audience.<a href="#cite_note-Wellcome-215">[215]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Biological engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Computational_biology#Genomics" title="Computational biology">Computational genomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Modifications_(genetics)" title="Modifications (genetics)">Modifications (genetics)</a></li>

<li><a href="Mutagenesis_(molecular_biology_technique)" title="Mutagenesis (molecular biology technique)">Mutagenesis (molecular biology technique)</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFQiu2010" class="citation journal cs1">Qiu, Jane (13 May 2010). "GM crop use makes minor pests major problem". Nature News. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.464.7885">10.1.1.464.7885</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnews.2010.242">10.1038/news.2010.242</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGilbert2013" class="citation journal cs1">Gilbert N (May 2013). "Case studies: A hard look at GM crops". Nature. 497 (7447): 24–6. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013Natur.497...24G">2013Natur.497...24G</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F497024a">10.1038/497024a</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23636378">23636378</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4417399">4417399</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/scitable/blog/accumulating-glitches/are_gmo_fish_safe_for">"Are GMO Fish Safe for the Environment? | Accumulating Glitches | Learn Science at Scitable"</a>. www.nature.com. Retrieved 7 May 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/foodsafety/areas_work/food-technology/faq-genetically-modified-food/en/">"Q&A: genetically modified food"</a>. World Health Organization. Retrieved 7 May 2017.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNicoliaManzoVeronesiRosellini2014" class="citation journal cs1">Nicolia A, Manzo A, Veronesi F, Rosellini D (March 2014). "An overview of the last 10 years of genetically engineered crop safety research". Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 34 (1): 77–88. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F07388551.2013.823595">10.3109/07388551.2013.823595</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24041244">24041244</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9836802">9836802</a>. <q>We have reviewed the scientific literature on GE crop safety for the last 10 years that catches the scientific consensus matured since GE plants became widely cultivated worldwide, and we can conclude that the scientific research conducted so far has not detected any significant hazard directly connected with the use of GM crops. The literature about Biodiversity and the GE food/feed consumption has sometimes resulted in animated debate regarding the suitability of the experimental designs, the choice of the statistical methods or the public accessibility of data. Such debate, even if positive and part of the natural process of review by the scientific community, has frequently been distorted by the media and often used politically and inappropriately in anti-GE crops campaigns.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/Y5160E/y5160e10.htm#P3_1651The">"State of Food and Agriculture 2003–2004. Agricultural Biotechnology: Meeting the Needs of the Poor. Health and environmental impacts of transgenic crops"</a>. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Retrieved 8 February 2016. <q>Currently available transgenic crops and foods derived from them have been judged safe to eat and the methods used to test their safety have been deemed appropriate. These conclusions represent the consensus of the scientific evidence surveyed by the ICSU (2003) and they are consistent with the views of the World Health Organization (WHO, 2002). These foods have been assessed for increased risks to human health by several national regulatory authorities (inter alia, Argentina, Brazil, Canada, China, the United Kingdom and the United States) using their national food safety procedures (ICSU). To date no verifiable untoward toxic or nutritionally deleterious effects resulting from the consumption of foods derived from genetically modified crops have been discovered anywhere in the world (GM Science Review Panel). Many millions of people have consumed foods derived from GM plants – mainly maize, soybean and oilseed rape – without any observed adverse effects (ICSU).</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRonald2011" class="citation journal cs1">Ronald P (May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3120150">"Plant genetics, sustainable agriculture and global food security"</a>. Genetics. 188 (1): 11–20. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1534%2Fgenetics.111.128553">10.1534/genetics.111.128553</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3120150">3120150</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21546547">21546547</a>. <q>There is broad scientific consensus that genetically engineered crops currently on the market are safe to eat. After 14 years of cultivation and a cumulative total of 2 billion acres planted, no adverse health or environmental effects have resulted from commercialization of genetically engineered crops (Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Committee on Environmental Impacts Associated with Commercialization of Transgenic Plants, National Research Council and Division on Earth and Life Studies 2002). Both the U.S. National Research Council and the Joint Research Centre (the European Union's scientific and technical research laboratory and an integral part of the European Commission) have concluded that there is a comprehensive body of knowledge that adequately addresses the food safety issue of genetically engineered crops (Committee on Identifying and Assessing Unintended Effects of Genetically Engineered Foods on Human Health and National Research Council 2004; European Commission Joint Research Centre 2008). These and other recent reports conclude that the processes of genetic engineering and conventional breeding are no different in terms of unintended consequences to human health and the environment (European Commission Directorate-General for Research and Innovation 2010).</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> But see also:

<cite id="CITEREFDomingoGiné_Bordonaba2011" class="citation journal cs1">Domingo JL, Giné Bordonaba J (May 2011). "A literature review on the safety assessment of genetically modified plants". Environment International. 37 (4): 734–42. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011EnInt..37..734D">2011EnInt..37..734D</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.envint.2011.01.003">10.1016/j.envint.2011.01.003</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21296423">21296423</a>. <q>In spite of this, the number of studies specifically focused on safety assessment of GM plants is still limited. However, it is important to remark that for the first time, a certain equilibrium in the number of research groups suggesting, on the basis of their studies, that a number of varieties of GM products (mainly maize and soybeans) are as safe and nutritious as the respective conventional non-GM plant, and those raising still serious concerns, was observed. Moreover, it is worth mentioning that most of the studies demonstrating that GM foods are as nutritional and safe as those obtained by conventional breeding, have been performed by biotechnology companies or associates, which are also responsible of commercializing these GM plants. Anyhow, this represents a notable advance in comparison with the lack of studies published in recent years in scientific journals by those companies.</q></cite>

<cite id="CITEREFKrimsky2015" class="citation journal cs1">Krimsky S (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160207171524/http://www.tufts.edu/~skrimsky/PDF/Illusory%20Consensus%20GMOs.PDF">"An Illusory Consensus behind GMO Health Assessment"</a> (PDF). Science, Technology, & Human Values. 40 (6): 883–914. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0162243915598381">10.1177/0162243915598381</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40855100">40855100</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tufts.edu/~skrimsky/PDF/Illusory%20Consensus%20GMOs.PDF">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 February 2016. Retrieved 30 October 2016. <q>I began this article with the testimonials from respected scientists that there is literally no scientific controversy over the health effects of GMOs. My investigation into the scientific literature tells another story.</q></cite>

And contrast:

<cite id="CITEREFPanchinTuzhikov2017" class="citation journal cs1">Panchin AY, Tuzhikov AI (March 2017). "Published GMO studies find no evidence of harm when corrected for multiple comparisons". Critical Reviews in Biotechnology. 37 (2): 213–217. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3109%2F07388551.2015.1130684">10.3109/07388551.2015.1130684</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26767435">26767435</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:11786594">11786594</a>. <q>Here, we show that a number of articles some of which have strongly and negatively influenced the public opinion on GM crops and even provoked political actions, such as GMO embargo, share common flaws in the statistical evaluation of the data. Having accounted for these flaws, we conclude that the data presented in these articles does not provide any substantial evidence of GMO harm. The presented articles suggesting possible harm of GMOs received high public attention. However, despite their claims, they actually weaken the evidence for the harm and lack of substantial equivalency of studied GMOs. We emphasize that with over 1783 published articles on GMOs over the last 10 years it is expected that some of them should have reported undesired differences between GMOs and conventional crops even if no such differences exist in reality.</q></cite>

and

<cite id="CITEREFYangChen2016" class="citation journal cs1">Yang YT, Chen B (April 2016). "Governing GMOs in the USA: science, law and public health". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 96 (6): 1851–5. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016JSFA...96.1851Y">2016JSFA...96.1851Y</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjsfa.7523">10.1002/jsfa.7523</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26536836">26536836</a>. <q>It is therefore not surprising that efforts to require labeling and to ban GMOs have been a growing political issue in the USA (citing Domingo and Bordonaba, 2011). Overall, a broad scientific consensus holds that currently marketed GM food poses no greater risk than conventional food... Major national and international science and medical associations have stated that no adverse human health effects related to GMO food have been reported or substantiated in peer-reviewed literature to date. Despite various concerns, today, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the World Health Organization, and many independent international science organizations agree that GMOs are just as safe as other foods. Compared with conventional breeding techniques, genetic engineering is far more precise and, in most cases, less likely to create an unexpected outcome.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/AAAS_GM_statement.pdf">"Statement by the AAAS Board of Directors on Labeling of Genetically Modified Foods"</a> (PDF). American Association for the Advancement of Science. 20 October 2012. Retrieved 8 February 2016. <q>The EU, for example, has invested more than €300 million in research on the biosafety of GMOs. Its recent report states: "The main conclusion to be drawn from the efforts of more than 130 research projects, covering a period of more than 25 years of research and involving more than 500 independent research groups, is that biotechnology, and in particular GMOs, are not per se more risky than e.g. conventional plant breeding technologies." The World Health Organization, the American Medical Association, the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, the British Royal Society, and every other respected organization that has examined the evidence has come to the same conclusion: consuming foods containing ingredients derived from GM crops is no riskier than consuming the same foods containing ingredients from crop plants modified by conventional plant improvement techniques.</q></cite><cite id="CITEREFPinholster2012" class="citation web cs1">Pinholster G (25 October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aaas.org/news/aaas-board-directors-legally-mandating-gm-food-labels-could-%E2%80%9Cmislead-and-falsely-alarm">"AAAS Board of Directors: Legally Mandating GM Food Labels Could "Mislead and Falsely Alarm Consumers""</a>. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved 8 February 2016.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFEuropean_Commission._Directorate-General_for_Research2010" class="citation book cs1">European Commission. Directorate-General for Research (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ec.europa.eu/research/biosociety/pdf/a_decade_of_eu-funded_gmo_research.pdf">A decade of EU-funded GMO research (2001–2010)</a> (PDF). Directorate-General for Research and Innovation. Biotechnologies, Agriculture, Food. European Commission, European Union. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2777%2F97784">10.2777/97784</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-92-79-16344-9</bdi>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101224152216/http://ec.europa.eu/research/biosociety/pdf/a_decade_of_eu-funded_gmo_research.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 24 December 2010. Retrieved 8 February 2016.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.isaaa.org/kc/Publications/htm/articles/Position/ama.htm">"AMA Report on Genetically Modified Crops and Foods (online summary)"</a>. American Medical Association. January 2001. Retrieved 19 March 2016. <q>A report issued by the scientific council of the American Medical Association (AMA) says that no long-term health effects have been detected from the use of transgenic crops and genetically modified foods, and that these foods are substantially equivalent to their conventional counterparts. (from online summary prepared by <a href="International_Service_for_the_Acquisition_of_Agri-biotech_Applications" title="International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications">ISAAA</a>)" "Crops and foods produced using recombinant DNA techniques have been available for fewer than 10 years and no long-term effects have been detected to date. These foods are substantially equivalent to their conventional counterparts.</q></cite><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120907023039/http://www.ama-assn.org/resources/doc/csaph/a12-csaph2-bioengineeredfoods.pdf">"Report 2 of the Council on Science and Public Health (A-12): Labeling of Bioengineered Foods"</a> (PDF). American Medical Association. 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ama-assn.org/resources/doc/csaph/a12-csaph2-bioengineeredfoods.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 September 2012. Retrieved 19 March 2016. <q>Bioengineered foods have been consumed for close to 20 years, and during that time, no overt consequences on human health have been reported and/or substantiated in the peer-reviewed literature.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/law/help/restrictions-on-gmos/usa.php#Opinion">"Restrictions on Genetically Modified Organisms: United States. Public and Scholarly Opinion"</a>. Library of Congress. 9 June 2015. Retrieved 8 February 2016. <q>Several scientific organizations in the US have issued studies or statements regarding the safety of GMOs indicating that there is no evidence that GMOs present unique safety risks compared to conventionally bred products. These include the National Research Council, the American Association for the Advancement of Science, and the American Medical Association. Groups in the US opposed to GMOs include some environmental organizations, organic farming organizations, and consumer organizations. A substantial number of legal academics have criticized the US's approach to regulating GMOs.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNational_Academies_of_SciencesDivision_on_Earth_Life_StudiesBoard_on_Agriculture_Natural_ResourcesCommittee_on_Genetically_Engineered_Crops:_Past_Experience_Future_Prospects2016" class="citation book cs1">National Academies of Sciences, Engineering; Division on Earth Life Studies; Board on Agriculture Natural Resources; Committee on Genetically Engineered Crops: Past Experience Future Prospects (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/read/23395/chapter/7#149">Genetically Engineered Crops: Experiences and Prospects</a>. The National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (US). p. 149. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F23395">10.17226/23395</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-309-43738-7</bdi>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28230933">28230933</a>. Retrieved 19 May 2016. <q>Overall finding on purported adverse effects on human health of foods derived from GE crops: On the basis of detailed examination of comparisons of currently commercialized GE with non-GE foods in compositional analysis, acute and chronic animal toxicity tests, long-term data on health of livestock fed GE foods, and human epidemiological data, the committee found no differences that implicate a higher risk to human health from GE foods than from their non-GE counterparts.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/foodsafety/areas_work/food-technology/faq-genetically-modified-food/en/">"Frequently asked questions on genetically modified foods"</a>. World Health Organization. Retrieved 8 February 2016. <q>Different GM organisms include different genes inserted in different ways. This means that individual GM foods and their safety should be assessed on a case-by-case basis and that it is not possible to make general statements on the safety of all GM foods. GM foods currently available on the international market have passed safety assessments and are not likely to present risks for human health. In addition, no effects on human health have been shown as a result of the consumption of such foods by the general population in the countries where they have been approved. Continuous application of safety assessments based on the Codex Alimentarius principles and, where appropriate, adequate post market monitoring, should form the basis for ensuring the safety of GM foods.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFHaslberger2003" class="citation journal cs1">Haslberger AG (July 2003). "Codex guidelines for GM foods include the analysis of unintended effects". Nature Biotechnology. 21 (7): 739–41. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnbt0703-739">10.1038/nbt0703-739</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12833088">12833088</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:2533628">2533628</a>. <q>These principles dictate a case-by-case premarket assessment that includes an evaluation of both direct and unintended effects.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> Some medical organizations, including the <a href="British_Medical_Association" title="British Medical Association">British Medical Association</a>, advocate further caution based upon the <a href="Precautionary_principle" title="Precautionary principle">precautionary principle</a>:<cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.argenbio.org/adc/uploads/pdf/bma.pdf">"Genetically modified foods and health: a second interim statement"</a> (PDF). British Medical Association. March 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140322224425/http://www.argenbio.org/adc/uploads/pdf/bma.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 22 March 2014. Retrieved 21 March 2016. <q>In our view, the potential for GM foods to cause harmful health effects is very small and many of the concerns expressed apply with equal vigour to conventionally derived foods. However, safety concerns cannot, as yet, be dismissed completely on the basis of information currently available. When seeking to optimise the balance between benefits and risks, it is prudent to err on the side of caution and, above all, learn from accumulating knowledge and experience. Any new technology such as genetic modification must be examined for possible benefits and risks to human health and the environment. As with all novel foods, safety assessments in relation to GM foods must be made on a case-by-case basis. Members of the GM jury project were briefed on various aspects of genetic modification by a diverse group of acknowledged experts in the relevant subjects. The GM jury reached the conclusion that the sale of GM foods currently available should be halted and the moratorium on commercial growth of GM crops should be continued. These conclusions were based on the precautionary principle and lack of evidence of any benefit. The Jury expressed concern over the impact of GM crops on farming, the environment, food safety and other potential health effects. The Royal Society review (2002) concluded that the risks to human health associated with the use of specific viral DNA sequences in GM plants are negligible, and while calling for caution in the introduction of potential allergens into food crops, stressed the absence of evidence that commercially available GM foods cause clinical allergic manifestations. The BMA shares the view that there is no robust evidence to prove that GM foods are unsafe but we endorse the call for further research and surveillance to provide convincing evidence of safety and benefit.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFunkRainie2015" class="citation web cs1">Funk C, Rainie L (29 January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190109232405/http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/01/29/public-and-scientists-views-on-science-and-society/">"Public and Scientists' Views on Science and Society"</a>. Pew Research Center. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pewinternet.org/2015/01/29/public-and-scientists-views-on-science-and-society/">the original</a> on 9 January 2019. Retrieved 24 February 2016. <q>The largest differences between the public and the AAAS scientists are found in beliefs about the safety of eating genetically modified (GM) foods. Nearly nine-in-ten (88%) scientists say it is generally safe to eat GM foods compared with 37% of the general public, a difference of 51 percentage points.</q></cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMarris2001" class="citation journal cs1">Marris C (July 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1083956">"Public views on GMOs: deconstructing the myths. Stakeholders in the GMO debate often describe public opinion as irrational. But do they really understand the public?"</a>. EMBO Reports. 2 (7): 545–8. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fembo-reports%2Fkve142">10.1093/embo-reports/kve142</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1083956">1083956</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11463731">11463731</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFFinal_Report_of_the_PABE_research_project2001" class="citation web cs1">Final Report of the PABE research project (December 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://csec.lancs.ac.uk/archive/pabe/docs/pabe_finalreport.doc">"Public Perceptions of Agricultural Biotechnologies in Europe"</a>. Commission of European Communities. Retrieved 24 February 2016.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFScottInbarRozin2016" class="citation journal cs1">Scott SE, Inbar Y, Rozin P (May 2016). "Evidence for Absolute Moral Opposition to Genetically Modified Food in the United States". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 11 (3): 315–324. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1745691615621275">10.1177/1745691615621275</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27217243">27217243</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:261060">261060</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKoboldt2017" class="citation web cs1">Koboldt D (29 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.outerplaces.com/science/item/16677-genetics-science-fiction-future">"The Science of Sci-Fi: How Science Fiction Predicted the Future of Genetics"</a>. Outer Places. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180719233445/https://www.outerplaces.com/science/item/16677-genetics-science-fiction-future">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2018.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-Moraga2-214"><a href="#cite_ref-Moraga2_214-0">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMoraga2009" class="citation journal cs1">Moraga R (November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://clarkesworldmagazine.com/moraga_11_09/">"Modern Genetics in the World of Fiction"</a>. <a href="Clarkesworld_Magazine" title="Clarkesworld Magazine">Clarkesworld Magazine</a> (38). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180719114128/http://clarkesworldmagazine.com/moraga_11_09/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 July 2018.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Wellcome-215">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wellcome_215-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wellcome_215-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wellcome_215-2">c</a> <cite id="CITEREFClark" class="citation web cs1">Clark M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120518055848/http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTD023539.html">"Genetic themes in fiction films: Genetics meets Hollywood"</a>. <a href="The_Wellcome_Trust" class="mw-redirect" title="The Wellcome Trust">The Wellcome Trust</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://genome.wellcome.ac.uk/doc_WTD023539.html">the original</a> on 18 May 2012. Retrieved 19 July 2018.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

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<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBritish_Medical_Association1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="British_Medical_Association" title="British Medical Association">British Medical Association</a> (1999). The Impact of Genetic Modification on Agriculture, Food and Health. BMJ Books. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-7279-1431-6</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFDonnellan,_Craig2004" class="citation book cs1">Donnellan, Craig (2004). Genetic Modification (Issues). Independence Educational Publishers. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-86168-288-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMorgan2009" class="citation book cs1">Morgan S (1 January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=48QpTA2P6O0C">Superfoods: Genetic Modification of Foods</a>. Heinemann Library. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4329-2455-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSmiley,_Sophie2005" class="citation book cs1">Smiley, Sophie (2005). Genetic Modification: Study Guide (Exploring the Issues). Independence Educational Publishers. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-86168-307-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWatson2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="James_D._Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="James D. Watson">Watson JD</a> (2007). Recombinant DNA: Genes and Genomes: A Short Course. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7167-2866-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWeaverMichael2003" class="citation report cs1">Weaver S, Michael M (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/handle/10063/3">An Annotated Bibliography of Scientific Publications on the Risks Associated with Genetic Modification</a> (Report). Wellington, NZ: Victoria University.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFZaidHughesPorcedduNicholas2001" class="citation book cs1">Zaid A, Hughes HG, Porceddu E, Nicholas F (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/y2775e/y2775e00.htm">Glossary of Biotechnology for Food and Agriculture – A Revised and Augmented Edition of the Glossary of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering</a>. Rome, Italy: <a href="FAO" class="mw-redirect" title="FAO">FAO</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>92-5-104683-2</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061213064401/http://www.gmo-safety.eu/en/">GMO Safety - Information about research projects on the biological safety of genetically modified plants.</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080719170701/http://www.gmo-compass.org/.">GMO-compass, news on GMO en EU</a></li></ul>

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</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialties and <a href="Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinarity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">Civil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

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<ul><li><a href="Traffic_engineering_(transportation)" title="Traffic engineering (transportation)">Traffic</a></li>

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<ul><li><a href="Broadcast_engineering" title="Broadcast engineering">Broadcast</a>

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<li><a href="Process_engineering" title="Process engineering">Process</a></li>

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<li><a href="Cybersecurity_engineering" title="Cybersecurity engineering">Cybersecurity</a></li>

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<ul><li><a href="Bachelor_of_Engineering" title="Bachelor of Engineering">Bachelor of Engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a></li>

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<li><a href="Engineer's_degree" title="Engineer's degree">Engineer's degree</a></li>

<li><a href="Regulation_and_licensure_in_engineering" title="Regulation and licensure in engineering">Licensed engineer</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Engineer" title="Engineer">Engineer</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li>Engineering

<li><a href="Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" title="Glossary of aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_civil_engineering" title="Glossary of civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Electrical and electronics engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" title="Glossary of mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agricultural_engineering" title="Agricultural engineering">Agricultural</a></li>

<li><a href="Audio_engineer" title="Audio engineer">Audio</a></li>

<li><a href="Automation_engineering" title="Automation engineering">Automation</a></li>

<li><a href="Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical</a>

<ul><li><a href="Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_engineering" title="Clinical engineering">Clinical</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_technology" title="Health technology">Health technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pharmaceutical_engineering" title="Pharmaceutical engineering">Pharmaceutical</a></li>

<li><a href="Rehabilitation_engineering" title="Rehabilitation engineering">Rehabilitation</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services</a>

<li><a href="Design_engineer" title="Design engineer">Design</a></li>

<li><a href="Explosives_engineering" title="Explosives engineering">Explosives</a></li>

<li><a href="Facilities_engineering" title="Facilities engineering">Facilities</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">Forensic</a></li>

<li><a href="Climate_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate engineering">Climate</a></li>

<li><a href="Geomatics_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Geomatics engineering">Geomatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_drawing" title="Engineering drawing">Graphics</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_engineering" title="Information engineering">Information</a></li>

<li><a href="Instrumentation_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Instrumentation engineering">Instrumentation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Instrumentation_and_control_engineering" title="Instrumentation and control engineering">Instrumentation and control</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Logistics_engineering" title="Logistics engineering">Logistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_management" title="Engineering management">Management</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_mathematics" title="Engineering mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Mechatronics" title="Mechatronics">Mechatronics</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_engineering" title="Military engineering">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_engineering" title="Nuclear engineering">Nuclear</a></li>

<li><a href="Ontology_engineering" title="Ontology engineering">Ontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Packaging_engineering" title="Packaging engineering">Packaging</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_physics" title="Engineering physics">Physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy_engineering" title="Privacy engineering">Privacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety</a></li>

<li><a href="Security_engineering" title="Security engineering">Security</a></li>

<li><a href="Survey_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Survey engineering">Survey</a></li>

<li><a href="Sustainable_engineering" title="Sustainable engineering">Sustainability</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Textile_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Textile engineering">Textile</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Engineering" class="extiw external" title="commons:Engineering">Commons</a></li>

<li> Wikiproject</li>

<li> <a href="Portal%3AEngineering" title="Portal:Engineering">Portal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Genetics421" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Genetics421" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><a href="Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction</a></li>

<li><a href="Outline_of_genetics" title="Outline of genetics">Outline</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_genetics" title="History of genetics">History</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_the_history_of_genetics" title="Timeline of the history of genetics">Timeline</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_genetics_articles" title="Index of genetics articles">Index</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_genetics" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of genetics">Glossary</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chromosome" title="Chromosome">Chromosome</a></li>

<li><a href="Genome" title="Genome">Genome</a></li>

<li><a href="Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li>

<li><a href="Nucleotide" title="Nucleotide">Nucleotide</a></li>

<li><a href="Mutation" title="Mutation">Mutation</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_variation" title="Genetic variation">Genetic variation</a></li>

<li><a href="Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li>

<li><a href="Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">Amino acid</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">Classical</a></li>

<li><a href="Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">Conservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecological_genetics" title="Ecological genetics">Ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Immunogenetics" title="Immunogenetics">Immunogenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Microbial_genetics" title="Microbial genetics">Microbial</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population</a></li>

<li><a href="Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">Quantitative</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">Archaeogenetics</a> of</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Genetic_history_of_Africa" title="Genetic history of Africa">Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">the Americas</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles" title="Genetic history of the British Isles">the British Isles</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Europe</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Italy</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East" title="Genetic history of the Middle East">the Middle East</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetics_and_archaeogenetics_of_South_Asia" title="Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia">South Asia</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">Behavioural genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Epigenetics" title="Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Geneticist" title="Geneticist">Geneticist</a></li>

<li><a href="Genome_editing" title="Genome editing">Genome editing</a></li>

<li><a href="Genomics" title="Genomics">Genomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_code" title="Genetic code">Genetic code</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">Genetic diversity</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_monitoring" title="Genetic monitoring">Genetic monitoring</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic genealogy</a></li>

<li><a href="Heredity" title="Heredity">Heredity</a></li>

<li><a href="He_Jiankui_genome_editing_incident" class="mw-redirect" title="He Jiankui genome editing incident">He Jiankui genome editing incident</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Plant_genetics" title="Plant genetics">Plant genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Population_genomics" title="Population genomics">Population genomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Reverse_genetics" title="Reverse genetics">Reverse genetics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="List_of_genetic_codes" title="List of genetic codes">List of genetic codes</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_genetics_research_organizations" title="List of genetics research organizations">List of genetics research organizations</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Bioethics187" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Bioethics187" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classic principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Beneficence_(ethics)" title="Beneficence (ethics)">Beneficence</a></li>

<li><a href="Primum_non_nocere" title="Primum non nocere">Non-maleficence</a></li>

<li><a href="Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other principles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li>

<li><a href="Confidentiality" title="Confidentiality">Confidentiality</a></li>

<li><a href="Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Principle_of_double_effect" title="Principle of double effect">Doctrine of double effect</a></li>

<li><a href="Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_equity" title="Health equity">Equity</a></li>

<li><a href="Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">Guilt</a></li>

<li><a href="Mercy" title="Mercy">Mercy</a></li>

<li><a href="Ownership" title="Ownership">Ownership</a></li>

<li><a href="Privacy" title="Privacy">Privacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Persuasion" title="Persuasion">Persuasion</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Theory" title="Theory">Theories</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li>

<li><a href="Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Reproduction" title="Reproduction">Reproduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_technology" title="Reproductive technology">Reproductive technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Sex_assignment" title="Sex assignment">Gender assignment</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></li>

<li><a href="Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">Gene therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">Genetic testing</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Death, dying, and emergent situations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Arbitration" title="Arbitration">Arbitration</a></li>

<li><a href="Brain_death" title="Brain death">Brain death</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiac_death" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiac death">Cardiac death</a></li>

<li><a href="Consensus_decision-making" title="Consensus decision-making">Consensus</a></li>

<li>Court intervention</li>

<li><a href="Death" title="Death">Death</a></li>

<li><a href="Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">Euthanasia</a></li>

<li><a href="Executor" title="Executor">Executor</a></li>

<li>Family meeting</li>

<li><a href="Mediation" title="Mediation">Mediation</a></li>

<li><a href="Healthcare_proxy" title="Healthcare proxy">Health care proxy</a></li>

<li><a href="Suicide" title="Suicide">Suicide</a></li>

<li>Transplant ethics</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cultural differences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li>

<li><a href="Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li>

<li><a href="Jewish_medical_ethics" title="Jewish medical ethics">Jewish medical ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li>

<li><a href="Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personal conduct</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Position_of_trust" title="Position of trust">Abuse of trust</a></li>

<li><a href="Continuity_of_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuity of care">Continuity of care</a></li>

<li><a href="Gift" title="Gift">Gifts</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_liability" title="Legal liability">Liability</a></li>

<li><a href="Lie" title="Lie">Lying</a></li>

<li><a href="Misconduct" title="Misconduct">Misconduct</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">Scientific misconduct</a></li>

<li>Medical misconduct</li>

<li><a href="Competence_(law)" title="Competence (law)">Competence (law)</a></li>

<li><a href="Competence_(human_resources)" title="Competence (human resources)">Competency</a></li>

<li><a href="Incompetency" class="mw-redirect" title="Incompetency">Incompetency</a></li>

<li>Termination of the patient-physician relationship</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research ethics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ethics_committee" title="Ethics committee">Ethics committee</a></li>

<li><a href="Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">Informed consent</a></li>

<li><a href="Informed_assent" title="Informed assent">Informed assent</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li>

<li><a href="Institutional_review_board" title="Institutional review board">Institutional review board</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_challenge_study" title="Human challenge study">Human challenge study</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biotechnology389" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><div id="Biotechnology389" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">Biotechnology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_biotechnology" title="Timeline of biotechnology">Timeline of biotechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Competitions_and_prizes_in_biotechnology" title="Competitions and prizes in biotechnology">Competitions and prizes in biotechnology</a></li></ul>

</div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Colors_of_biotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Colors of biotechnology">Colors of biotechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_biotechnology" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial biotechnology">Industrial biotechnology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Allele" title="Allele">Allele</a></li>

<li><a href="Fermentation" title="Fermentation">Fermentation</a></li>

<li><a href="Plasmid" title="Plasmid">Plasmid</a></li>

<li><a href="Protein" title="Protein">Protein</a></li>

<li><a href="Selective_breeding" title="Selective breeding">Selective breeding</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biotechnology_industrial_park" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology industrial park">Biotechnology industrial park</a></li>

<li><a href="Biotechnology_products" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology products">Biotechnology products</a></li>

<li><a href="Biotechnology_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotechnology law">Biotechnology law</a></li>

<li><a href="Green_Revolution" title="Green Revolution">Green Revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li>

<li><a href="Pharmaceutical_company" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical company">Pharmaceutical company</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic techniques and tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biology field</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bioreactor" title="Bioreactor">Bioreactor</a></li>

<li><a href="Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li>

<li><a href="Flow_cytometry" title="Flow cytometry">Flow cytometry</a></li>

<li><a href="Hybridoma_technology" title="Hybridoma technology">Hybridoma technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Chemical field</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Centrifugation" title="Centrifugation">Centrifugation</a></li>

<li><a href="Crystallization" title="Crystallization">Crystallization</a></li>

<li><a href="Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li>

<li><a href="Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">Kidney dialysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrophoresis" title="Electrophoresis">Electrophoresis</a></li>

<li><a href="Extraction_(chemistry)" title="Extraction (chemistry)">Extraction</a></li>

<li><a href="Fed-batch_culture" title="Fed-batch culture">Fed Batch</a></li>

<li><a href="Filtration" title="Filtration">Filtration</a></li>

<li><a href="Sedimentation" title="Sedimentation">Sedimentation</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Animal_cell_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal cell culture">Animal cell culture</a></li>

<li><a href="Biofabrication" title="Biofabrication">Biofabrication</a></li>

<li><a href="Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">Bioinformatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biosynthesis" title="Biosynthesis">Biosynthesis</a></li>

<li><a href="Bionic_architecture" title="Bionic architecture">Bionic architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Cell_immunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell immunity">Cell immunity</a></li>

<li><a href="Cloning" title="Cloning">Cloning</a>

<ul><li><a href="Reproductive_cloning" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive cloning">Reproductive cloning</a></li>

<li><a href="Therapeutic_cloning" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutic cloning">Therapeutic cloning</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Embryology" title="Embryology">Embryology</a></li>

<li><a href="Environmental_biotechnology" title="Environmental biotechnology">Environmental biotechnology</a></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Genetically_modified_organism" title="Genetically modified organism">Genetically modified organism</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_genetics" title="Molecular genetics">Molecular genetics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">Gene therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Microbial_biodegradation" title="Microbial biodegradation">Microbial biodegradation</a></li>

<li><a href="Omics" title="Omics">Omics</a></li>

<li><a href="Pharmacogenomics" title="Pharmacogenomics">Pharmacogenomics</a></li>

<li><a href="Stem_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem cells">Stem cells</a></li>

<li><a href="Telomere" title="Telomere">Telomere</a></li>

<li><a href="Tissue_culture" title="Tissue culture">Tissue culture</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Biobased_economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Biobased economy">Bioeconomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Bioelectronics" title="Bioelectronics">Bioelectronics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_engineering" title="Biological engineering">Bioengineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Biology" title="Biology">Biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Biopharmaceutical" title="Biopharmaceutical">Biopharmacology</a></li>

<li><a href="Biomedical_engineering" title="Biomedical engineering">Biomedical engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Biomedicine" title="Biomedicine">Biomedicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Biomimetics" title="Biomimetics">Biomimetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">Biochemicals</a></li>

<li><a href="Biorobotics" title="Biorobotics">Biorobotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Chemical_engineering" title="Chemical engineering">Chemical engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Microbiology" title="Microbiology">Microbiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Mining" title="Mining">Mining</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_biology" title="Molecular biology">Molecular biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanobiotechnology" title="Nanobiotechnology">Nanobiotechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Virology" title="Virology">Virology</a></li></ul>

<ul><li><a href="Index_of_biotechnology_articles" title="Index of biotechnology articles">Index of biotechnology articles</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_biotechnology_articles" class="mw-redirect" title="List of biotechnology articles">List of biotechnology articles</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_largest_biomedical_companies_by_market_capitalization" title="List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization">List of largest biomedical companies by market capitalization</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>

<ul><li> Category</li>

<li> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Biotechnology" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Biotechnology">Commons</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Emerging_technologies167" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="Emerging_technologies167" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">Emerging technologies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Biomedical_technology" title="Biomedical technology">Biomedical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="3D_bioprinting" title="3D bioprinting">3D bioprinting</a>

<ul><li><a href="Microgravity_bioprinting" title="Microgravity bioprinting">Microgravity bioprinting</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Aldehyde-stabilized_cryopreservation" title="Aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation">Aldehyde-stabilized cryopreservation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ampakine" title="Ampakine">Ampakine</a></li>

<li><a href="Artificial_organ" title="Artificial organ">Artificial organs</a>

<ul><li><a href="Organ_printing" title="Organ printing">Organ printing</a></li>

<li><a href="Biofabrication" title="Biofabrication">Biofabrication</a></li>

<li><a href="Brain_transplant" title="Brain transplant">Brain transplant</a></li>

<li><a href="De-extinction" title="De-extinction">De-extinction</a></li>

<li><a href="Generative_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Generative biology">Generative biology</a></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Gene_therapy" title="Gene therapy">Gene therapy</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Head_transplant" title="Head transplant">Head transplant</a></li>

<li><a href="Isolated_brain" title="Isolated brain">Isolated brain</a></li>

<li><a href="Life_extension" title="Life extension">Life extension</a>

<ul><li><a href="Strategies_for_engineered_negligible_senescence" title="Strategies for engineered negligible senescence">Strategies for engineered negligible senescence</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanosensor" title="Nanosensor">Nanosensors</a></li>

<li><a href="Organ_culture" title="Organ culture">Organ culture</a>

<ul><li><a href="Engineered_uterus" title="Engineered uterus">engineered uterus</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Regenerative_medicine" title="Regenerative medicine">Regenerative medicine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Stem-cell_therapy" title="Stem-cell therapy">Stem-cell therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Tissue_engineering" title="Tissue engineering">Tissue engineering</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Robot-assisted_surgery" title="Robot-assisted surgery">Robot-assisted surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Relational_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Relational biology">Relational biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Synthetic_genomics" title="Synthetic genomics">Synthetic genomics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Medical_tricorder" title="Medical tricorder">Tricorder</a></li>

<li><a href="Virotherapy" title="Virotherapy">Virotherapy</a>

<ul><li><a href="Oncolytic_virus" title="Oncolytic virus">Oncolytic virus</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Whole_genome_sequencing" title="Whole genome sequencing">Whole genome sequencing</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Automation" title="Automation">Automation</a></li>

<li><a href="Collingridge_dilemma" title="Collingridge dilemma">Collingridge dilemma</a></li>

<li><a href="Differential_technological_development" title="Differential technological development">Differential technological development</a></li>

<li><a href="Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">Disruptive innovation</a></li>

<li><a href="Ephemeralization" title="Ephemeralization">Ephemeralization</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Ethics</a>

<li><a href="Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyberethics" title="Cyberethics">Cyberethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroethics" title="Neuroethics">Neuroethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Robot_ethics" title="Robot ethics">Robot ethics</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Exploratory_engineering" title="Exploratory engineering">Exploratory engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Proactionary_principle" title="Proactionary principle">Proactionary principle</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_change" title="Technological change">Technological change</a>

<ul><li><a href="Technological_unemployment" title="Technological unemployment">Technological unemployment</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">Technological convergence</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_evolution" title="Technological evolution">Technological evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_paradigm" title="Technological paradigm">Technological paradigm</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_forecasting" title="Technology forecasting">Technology forecasting</a>

<ul><li><a href="Accelerating_change" title="Accelerating change">Accelerating change</a></li>

<li><a href="Future-oriented_technology_analysis" title="Future-oriented technology analysis">Future-oriented technology analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Horizon_scanning" title="Horizon scanning">Horizon scanning</a></li>

<li><a href="Moore's_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_singularity" title="Technological singularity">Technological singularity</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_scouting" title="Technology scouting">Technology scouting</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Technology_in_science_fiction" title="Technology in science fiction">Technology in science fiction</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_readiness_level" title="Technology readiness level">Technology readiness level</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_roadmap" title="Technology roadmap">Technology roadmap</a></li>

<li><a href="Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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